Longevity Records
Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish

Birds

Table 2. Record Life Spans (years) of Birds

((+) indicates that individual was still alive at the time that life span was recorded)

Order/FamilyGenus/SpeciesCommon NameWildCapt.M/FReference
Anseriformes
AnatidaeAix sponsaWood duck17.6 m[29]
 Aix sponsaWood duck22.5 m[78]
 Alopochen aegyptiacusEgyptian goose 25.5x[50]
 Anas acutaCommon pintail20.5 m[29]
 Anas acutaNorthern pintail21.3 m[78]
 Anas americanaAmerican wigeon21.3 m[29]
 Anas americanaAmerican wigeon9.0 x[37]
 Anas clypeataNorthern shoveler16.6 m[29]
 Anas creccaGreen-winged teal20.5 x[29]
 Anas creccaGreen-winged teal20.3 f[29]
 Anas cyanopteraCinnamon teal12.9 m[29]
 Anas diaziMexican duck5.5 m[29]
 Anas discorsBlue-winged teal17.4 m[29]
 Anas discorsBlue-winged teal22.3 f[78]
 Anas fulvigulaMottled duck13.4 m[29]
 Anas fulvigulaMottled duck (+)13.020.0x[132]
 Anas laysanensisLaysan teal11.8 f[29]
 Anas penelopeEurasian wigeon8.6 m[29]
 Anas penelopeEurasian wigeon 6.4x[50]
 Anas platyrhynchosMallard23.4 m[29]
 Anas platyrhynchosMallard29.0 x[37]
 Anas platyrhynchosMallard20.5 x[90]
 Anas rubripesAmerican black duck26.4 m[29]
 Anas streperaGadwall17.7 m[29]
 Anas streperaGadwall 5.4x[50]
 Anas streperaGadwall19.5 m[78]
 Anas wyvillianaHawaiian duck3.7 f[78]
 Anser albifronsGreater white-fronted goose20.3 f[29]
 Anser albifronsWhite-fronted goose 27.8x[50]
 Anser albifronsGreater white-fronted goose22.3 m[78]
 Anser albifronsGreater white-fronted goose22.347.0f[116]
 Anser brachyrhynchusPink-footed goose22.0 x[37]
 Anser caerulescensSnow goose26.6 x[29]
 Anser caerulescensBlue goose19.5 x[29]
 Anser caerulescensSnow (blue) goose24.5 x[78]
 Anser canagicaEmperor goose9.0 x[17]
 Anser canagicaEmperor goose6.3 f[29]
 Anser domesticusDomestic goose 31.0x[50]
 Anser fabalisBean goose 23.0x[50]
 Anser rossiiRoss’ goose19.6 m[29]
 Anser rossiiRoss’ goose21.5 m[78] [121]
 Aythya affinisLesser scaup18.3 m[29]
 Aythya americanaRedhead21.4 x[29]
 Aythya aythyaCanvasback18.8 m[29]
 Aythya collarisRing-necked duck16.2 m[29]
 Aythya collarisRing-necked duck20.4 m[78]
 Aythya marilaGreater scaup18.3 m[29]
 Aythya valisineriaCanvasback22.4 m[78]
 Branta berniclaAtlantic brant16.6 x[29]
 Branta berniclaBrent goose 21.8x[50]
 Branta bernicla hrota(Atlantic) brant21.6 f[78]
 Branta bernicla nigricans(Black) brant25.8 m[78]
 Branta canadensisCanada goose23.5 f[29]
 Branta canadensisCanada goose24.3 m[78]
 Branta nigricansBlack brant19.6 f[29]
 Bucephala albeolaBufflehead12.5 m[29]
 Bucephala albeolaBufflehead14.9 m[37]
 Bucephala albeolaBufflehead11.5 f[37]
 Bucephala clangulaCommon goldeneye14.3 x[29]
 Bucephala clangulaCommon goldeneye12.0 f[40]
 Bucephala clangulaCommon goldeneye11.0 m[40]
 Bucephala islandicaBarrow’s goldeneye15.3 m[29]
 Cereopsis novaehollandiaeCape barren goose 28.1x[50]
 Clangula hyemalisOldsquaw15.3 m[29]
 Clangula hyemalisOldsquaw15.6 f[78]
 Cygnus buccinatorTrumpeter swan23.8 m[29]
 Cygnus buccinatorTrumpeter swan (+) 29.5 [50]
 Cygnus buccinatorTrumpeter swan24.032.5x[76] [83]
 Cygnus c. columbianusTundra (whistling) swan (+)19.7 f[78]
 Cygnus columbianusWhistling swan16.2 f[29]
 Cygnus columbianusTundra swan (+)21.0 x[88]
 Cygnus olorMute swan13.3 f[29]
 Cygnus olorMute swan (+)21.0 x[37]
 Cygnus olorMute swan26.8 m[78]
 Dendrocygna autumnalisBlack-bellied whistling duck8.2 f[29]
 Dendrocygna bicolorFulvous whistling duck6.5 m[29]
 Lophodytes cucullatusHooded merganser11.3 f[29]
 Lophodytes cucullatusHooded merganser10.3 x[38]
 Melanitta deglandiWhite-winged scoter11.7 f[29]
 Melanitta fuscaWhite-winged scoter12.0 x[37]
 Melanitta fuscaWhite-winged scoter15.6 f[78]
 Mergus merganserCommon merganser13.4 f[29]
 Mergus serratorRed-breasted merganser5.4 x[29]
 Oxyura australisAustralian blue-billed duck 16.0x[37]
 Oxyura jamaicensisRuddy duck13.6 m[29]
 Plectropterus gambensisSpur-winged goose 11.3x[50]
 Polysticta stelleriStellar’s eider (+)14.3 f[78]
 Polysticta stelleriSteller’s eider12.3 m[29]
 Somateria mollissimaCommon eider14.8 f[29]
 Somateria mollissimaCommon eider21.3 f[78]
 Somateria mollissimaCommon eider23.0 x[37]
 Somateria spectabilisKing eider18.9 f[29]
 Tachyeres cinereusSteamer duck 10.2x[50]
Apodiformes
ApodidaeAeronautes sexatilisWhite-throated swift5.7 x[30]
 Apus apusSwift 21.0x[141]
 Chaertura vauxVaux’s swift5.1 x[30]
 Chaetura pelagicaChimney swift14.0 m[30]
 Cypseloides nigerBlack swift6.0 x[30]
Caprimulgiformes
CaprimulgidaeCaprimulgus vociferusWhippoorwill4.0 x[30]
 Chordeiles minorCommon nighthawk9.0 f[30]
 Phalaenoptilus nuttalliiCommon poorwill (+)3.0 x[35]
Casuariiformes
CasuariidaeCasuarius papuanusWestermann’s cassowary 26.0x[50]
 Casuarius unappendiculatusBlyth’s cassowary 22.0x[50]
DromiceidaeDromaius novaehollandiaeEmu (+) 10.0x[37]
 Dromaius n. hollandiaeWindsor emu 16.6x[50]
Charadriiformes
AlcidaeAethia cristatellaCrested auklet7.6 x[73]
 Aethia pusillaLeast auklet4.4 x[72] [74]
 Alca tordaRazorbill6.2 x[29]
 Alca tordaRazorbill6.4 x[78]
 Cepphus columbaPigeon guillemot9.3 x[29]
 Cepphus columbaPigeon guillemot14.0 x[42]
 Cepphus columbaPigeon guillemot11.8 x[78]
 Cepphus grylleBlack guillemot12.1 f[29]
 Cerorhinca monocerataRhinoceros auklet6.2 x[29]
 Cerorhinca monocerataRhinoceros auklet7.4 x[78]
 Fratercula arcticaAtlantic puffin20.0 x[78]
 Fratercula arcticaAtlantic puffin13.2 x[29]
 Fratercula cirrhataTufted puffin6.0 x[78]
 Ptychoramphus aleuticusCassin’s auklet5.7 x[29]
 Ptychoramphus aleuticusCassin’s auklet10.2 x[78]
 Ptychoramphus aleuticusCassin’s auklet (+)6.0 x[91]
 Synthliboramphus antiquusAncient murrelet5.0 x[29]
 Synthliboramphus antiquusAncient murrelet4.4 x[51]
 Synthliboramphus hypoleucusXantus’ murrelet15.0 x[28]
 Synthliboramphus hypoleucusXantus’ murrelet9.8 x[78]
 Uria aalgeCommon murre26.4 x[29]
 Uria lomviaThick-billed murre22.7 x[29]
CharadriidaeCharadrius alexandrinusSnowy plover7.0 x[29]
 Charadrius alexandrinusSnowy plover (+)11.0 x[78]
 Charadrius alexandrinusSnowy plover (+)15.0 m[107]
 Charadrius melodusPiping plover14.0 m[29]
 Charadrius melodusPiping plover11.0 x[144]
 Charadrius semipalmatusSemipalmated plover8.2 x[29]
 Charadrius vociferusKilldeer10.9 x[29]
 Pluvialis dominicaLesser golden plover4.8 x[78]
 Pluvialis squatarolaBlack-bellied plover12.7 x[29]
 Pluvialis squatarolaBlack-bellied plover20.3 x[62]
HaematopodidaeHaematopus bachmaniBlack oystercatcher6.2 x[29]
 Haematopus bachmaniBlack oystercatcher16.0 x[115]
 Haematopus ostralegusEuropean oystercatcher36.0 x[102]
 Haematopus palliatusAmerican oystercatcher14.0 x[29]
 Haematopus palliatusAmerican oystercatcher17.0 x[104]
LaridaeAnous minutusBlack noddy21.8 x[78]
 Anous stolidusNoddy tern24.9 x[29]
 Anous tenuirostrisBlack noddy16.1 x[29]
 Chlidonias nigerBlack tern8.4 x[29]
 Chlidonias nigerBlack tern17.2 x[33]
 Gygis albaFairy tern17.8 x[29]
 Larus argentatusHerring gull27.3 x[29]
 Larus argentatusHerring gull (+) 44.0x[49]
 Larus argentatusHerring gull28.0 x[78]
 Larus argentatusHerring gull19.0 x[90]
 Larus argentatusHerring gull (+)30.040.0x[136]
 Larus atricillaLaughing gull15.1 x[29]
 Larus californicusCalifornia gull13.3 x[29]
 Larus canusMew gull18.2 x[29]
 Larus delawarensisRing-billed gull25.1 x[29]
 Larus delawarensisRing-billed gull31.8 x[129]
 Larus glaucescensGlaucous-winged gull32.0 x[25]
 Larus glaucescensGlaucous-winged gull22.1 x[29]
 Larus glaucescensGlaucous-winged gull22.8 x[78]
 Larus marinusGreat black-backed gull23.3 x[29]
 Larus occidentalisWestern gull27.8 x[29]
 Larus occidentalisWestern gull25.0 x[113]
 Larus pacificusPacific gull 14.5x[50]
 Larus pipixcanFranklin’s gull (+)9.0 x[29]
 Larus pipixcanFranklin’s gull9.4 x[29]
 Pagophila eburneaIvory gull8.0 x[78]
 Pagophila eburneaIvory gull17.0 x[137]
 Procelsterna ceruleaBlue-gray noddy11.0 x[29]
 Procelsterna ceruleaBlue-gray noddy (+)14.0 x[78]
 Rissa brevirostrisRed-legged kittiwake4.0 x[21]
 Rissa tridactylaBlack-legged kittiwake5.0 x[59]
 Rissa tridactylaBlack-legged kittiwake7.0 x[29]
 Sterna albifronsLeast tern21.1 x[29]
 Sterna antillarumLeast tern24.1 x[78]
 Sterna caspiaCaspian tern26.2 x[29]
 Sterna dougalliiRoseate tern12.1 x[29]
 Sterna dougalliiRoseate tern (+)14.0 x[78]
 Sterna elegansElegant tern8.9 x[29]
 Sterna forsteriForster’s tern10.3 x[29]
 Sterna forsteriForster’s tern12.0 x[78]
 Sterna fuscataSooty tern32.0 x[29]
 Sterna lunataGray-backed tern16.2 x[29]
 Sterna lunataGray-backed tern (+)18.0 x[78]
 Sterna maximaRoyal tern17.0 x[29]
 Sterna maximaRoyal tern22.2 x[78]
 Sterna niloticaGull-billed tern6.3 x[29]
 Sterna niloticaGull-billed tern (+)16.0 x[122]
 Sterna paradisaeaArctic tern34.0 x[29]
 Sterna sandvicensisSandwich tern16.1 x[29]
RecurvirostridaeHimantopus mexicanus knudsensiBlack-necked (Hawaiian) stilt5.2 f[78]
 Recurvirostra americanaAmerican avocet9.0 f[78]
RynchopidaeRhynchops nigerBlack skimmer20.0 x[30]
ScolopacidaeArenaria interpresRuddy turnstone14.3 x[29]
 Bartramia longicaudaUpland sandpiper5.2 x[29]
 Calidris albaSanderling5.3 x[29]
 Calidris albaSanderling13.1 x[78]
 Calidris alpinaDunlin9.3 m[29]
 Calidris alpinaDunlin (+)12.4 x[78]
 Calidris canutusRed knot6.2 x[29]
 Calidris canutusRed knot10.2 x[78]
 Calidris fuscicollisWhite-rumped sandpiper7.0 x[29]
 Calidris himantopusStilt sandpiper (+)11.1 x[78]
 Calidris mauriWestern sandpiper9.2 x[29]
 Calidris melanotosPectoral sandpiper5.9 x[78]
 Calidris minutillaLeast sandpiper11.3 x[29]
 Calidris minutillaLeast sandpiper16.0 f[78]
 Calidris minutillaLeast sandpiper16.0 m[95]
 Calidris ptilocnemisRock sandpiper7.3 x[78]
 Calidris pusillaSemipalmated sandpiper12.1 x[29]
 Calidris pusillaSemipalmated sandpiper12.0 x[63]
 Calidris pusillaSemipalmated sandpiper12.2 x[78]
 Catoptrophorus semipalmatusWillet8.9 m[29]
 Gallinago gallinagoCommon snipe9.3 x[29]
 Limnodromus griseusShort-billed dowitcher7.6 x[29]
 Limnodromus griseusShort-billed dowitcher13.3 x[78]
 Limnodromus scolopaceusLong-billed dowitcher8.3 x[29]
 Limosa fedoaMarbled godwit8.6 x[29]
 Limosa lapponicaBar-tailed godwit3.9 x[78]
 Lobipes lobatusNorthern phalarope5.0 f[29]
 Micropalama himantopusStilt sandpiper9.1 x[29]
 Numenius arquataEurasian curlew31.5 x[84]
 Numenius phaeopusWhimbrel11.0 f[29]
 Numenius phaeopusWhimbrel 8.8x[50]
 Numenius tahitiensisBristle-thighed curlew11.8 x[78]
 Phalaropus tricolorWilson’s phalarope10.0 m/f[30]
 Scolopax minorAmerican woodcock9.3 f[29]
 Scolopax minorAmerican woodcock11.3 f[78]
 Tringa flavipesLesser yellowlegs4.8 x[29]
 Tringa maculariaSpotted sandpiper12.0 m[29]
StercorariidaeStercorarius longicaudusLong-tailed jaeger8.1 x[29]
Ciconiiformes
ArdeidaeArdea cinereaHeron 15.8x[50]
 Ardea cinereaHeron 24.0x[138]
 Ardea cocoiCocoi heron 24.4x[50]
 Ardea goliathGoliath heron 22.9x[50]
 Ardea herodiasGreat blue heron23.3 x[29]
 Botaurus lentiginosusAmerican bittern8.3 x[29]
 Botaurus lentiginosusAmerican bittern (+)8.0 x[29]
 Bubulcus ibisCattle egret17.0 x[29]
 Bubulcus ibisCattle egret23.0 x[135]
 Butorides striatusGreen heron7.9 x[29]
 Butorides virescensGreen heron11.6 x[29]
 Egretta albaGreat egret22.8 x[29]
 Egretta caeruleaLittle blue heron13.9 x[29]
 Egretta rufescensReddish egret12.3 x[29]
 Egretta thulaSnowy egret11.3 x[29]
 Egretta thulaSnowy egret17.6 x[78]
 Hydranassa tricolorLouisiana heron17.7 x[29]
 Nycticorax nycticoraxBlack-crowned night heron21.0 x[7] [64]
[103]
 Nyticorax nycticoraxBlack-crowned night heron21.1 f[29]
 Nycticorax violaceusYellow-crowned night heron6.3 x[78]
BalaenicipitidaeBalaeniceps rexShoebill 36.0x[37]
 Balaeniceps rexShoebill 35.7m[50]
CiconiidaeCiconia abdimiiAbdim’s stork (+) 21.0x[37]
 Ciconia boycianaOriental white stork 48.0x[37]
 Ciconia ciconiaEuropean white stork (+)33.035.0x[37]
 Ciconia episcopusWoolly-necked stork (+) 30.0x[37]
 Ciconia maguariMaguari stork (+) 20.0x[37]
 Ciconia nigraBlack stork18.031.0x[37]
 Ephippiorhynchus asiaticusBlack-necked stork (+) 34.0x[37]
 Ephippiorhynchus senegalensisSaddle-billed stork (+) 36.0x[37]
 Jabiru mycteriaJabiru (+) 36.0x[37]
 Leptoptilos crumeniferusMarabou25.041.0x[37]
 Leptoptilos dubiusGreater adjutant 43.0x[37]
 Leptoptilos javanicusLesser adjutant 30.0x[37]
 Mycteria americanaWood stork (+) 27.0x[37]
 Mycteria americanaWood stork6.5 x[78]
 Mycteria ibisYellow-billed stork (+) 19.0x[37]
 Mycteria leucocephalaPainted stork (+) 28.0x[37]
ThreskiornithidaeAjaia alajaRoseate spoonbill7.8 x[29]
 Eudocimus albusWhite ibis (+)16.320.0x[29] [132]
 Nipponia nipponJapanese crested ibis 17.0x[37]
 Platalea leucorodiaEurasian spoonbill28.0 x[37]
 Plegadis chihiWhite-faced ibis14.514.0x[29]
 Plegadis falcinellusGlossy ibis14.3 x[29]
 Threskiornis aethiopicusSacred ibis21.0 x[37]
 Threskiornis aethiopicusSacred ibis 29.2x[50]
Columbiformes
ColumbidaeColumba fasciataBand-tailed pigeon15.5 x[30]
 Columba fasciataBand-tailed pigeon18.5 x[78]
 Columba leucocephalaWhite-crowned pigeon12.2 x[30]
 Columba leucocephalaWhite-crowned pigeon14.4 x[78]
 Columba leucocephalaWhite-crowned pigeon8.3 x[90]
 Columba liviaRock dove 35.0x[48]
 Columba liviaRock dove (+)6.0 x[71]
 Columbina incaInca dove7.8 x[30]
 Columbina incaInca dove 13.3x[50]
 Columbina passerinaCommon ground dove6.1 x[30]
 Columbina passerinaCommon ground dove7.2 f[78]
 Geopelia striataBarred ground dove 14.0x[50]
 Leptotila verreauxiWhite-tipped dove8.6 x[30]
 Leucosarcia melanoleucaWonga-wonga pigeon 16.3x[50]
 Streptopelia chinensisSpotted dove7.7 x[30]
 Streptopelia decaoctoIndian turtle dove 17.9x[50]
 Zenaida asiaticaWhite-winged dove21.8 x[30]
 Zenaida macrouraMourning dove19.3 x[30]
Coraciiformes
BucerotidaeCeratogymna atrataAfrican black-wattled hornbill 19.3x[50]
 Didioceros bicornisGreat Indian hornbill 33.4x[50]
BucorvidaeBucorvus cafer (leadbeateri)Southern ground hornbill (+) 70.0x[75]
 Coracias affinisBurmese roller 8.9x[50]
 Coracias gamilusEuropean roller 8.9x[50]
MeropidaeMerops bullockoidesWhite-fronted bee-eater7.0 x[50]
 Momotus bahamensisSwainson’s motmot 10.4x[50]
Cuculiformes
CoccyzidaeCoccyzus americanusYellow-billed cuckoo5.0 x[30]
 Coccyzus erythrophthalmusBlack-billed cuckoo5.0 x[30]
NeomorphidaeGeococcyx californianusGreater roadrunner (+)3.8 m[78]
Dinornithiformes
ApterygidaeApteryx australisBrown kiwi 35.0x[37]
 Apteryx mantelliKiwi 20.0x[50]
Falconiformes
AccipitridaeAccipiter audaxWedge-tailed eagle 40.0x[37]
 Accipiter cooperiiCooper’s hawk7.5 f[29]
 Accipiter cooperiiCooper’s hawk10.5 f[78] [101]
 Accipiter cooperiiCooper’s hawk12.0 x[120]
 Accipiter gentilisNorthern goshawk12.8 f[29]
 Accipiter gentilisNorthern goshawk 9.4x[50]
 Accipiter gentilisNorthern goshawk13.0 f[78]
 Accipiter gentilisNorthern goshawk19.0 x[37]
 Accipiter heliacaEastern imperical eagle55.056.0x[37]
 Accipiter nipalensisSteppe eagle 41.0x[37]
 Accipiter nisusEurasian sparrowhawk15.0 x[37]
 Accipiter striatusSharp-shinned hawk9.8 f[29] [101]
 Accipiter gentilisNorthern goshawk19.0 x[101]
 Accipiter gentilisNorthern goshawk13.0 x[101]
 Accipiter nisus nisusSparrowhawk15.5 x[101]
 Aegypius monachusEurasian black vulture 39.0x[37]
 Aegypius monachusEurasian black vulture25.5 x[101]
 Aquila adalbertiSpanish imperial eagle 44.5x[50]
 Aquila audaxWedge-tailed eagle 26.4x[50]
 Aquila audaxWedge-tailed eagle5.9 x[101]
 Aquila chrysaetosGolden eagle10.4 x[29]
 Aquila chrysaetosGolden eagle17.1 m[78] [101]
 Aquila chrysaetosGolden eagle25.7 x[101]
 Aquila chrysaetosGolden eagle38.0 x[37]
 Aquila pomarinaLesser spotted eagle26.1 x[37] [101]
 Aquila pomarinaLesser spotted eagle 22.3x[50]
 Aquila rapax belisariusTawny eagle 40.3f[50]
 Aquila wahlbergiWahlberg’s eagle11.8 x[101]
 Butastur indicus indicusGray-faced buzzard8.5 x[101]
 Buteo buteoEurasian buzzard25.0 x[37]
 Buteo buteo buteoBuzzard25.3 x[101]
 Buteo jamaicensisRed-tailed hawk19.8 x[29]
 Buteo jamaicensisRed-tailed hawk21.5 x[78] [101]
 Buteo jamaicensisRed-tailed hawk 29.5f[108]
 Buteo jamaicensisRed-tailed hawk21.4 x[108]
 Buteo lagopusRough-legged hawk17.8 f[29] [101]
 Buteo lagopusRough-legged hawk18.0 x[37]
 Buteo lagopusRough-legged hawk10.9 x[101]
 Buteo lineatusRed-shouldered hawk20.0 x[29]
 Buteo lineatusRed-shouldered hawk19.9 x[29] [101]
 Buteo platypterusBroad-winged hawk14.3 x[29]
 Buteo platypterusBroad-winged hawk18.3 x[78] [101]
 Buteo regalisFerruginous hawk15.9 x[29] [101]
 Buteo regalisFerruginous hawk20.0 x[65] [89]
 Buteo swainsoniSwainson’s hawk15.9 x[29] [101]
 Buteo swainsoniSwainson’s hawk16.0 x[37]
 Buteogallus anthracinusCommon black hawk13.5 x[124]
 Circaetus cinereusBrown snake eagle6.8 x[101]
 Circaetus gallicusShort-toed snake eagle17.0 x[37]
 Circaetus gallicusShort-toed eagle17.3 x[101]
 Circus aeruginosusMarsh harrier16.7 x[101]
 Circus aeruginosus approximansSwamp harrier18.2 x[101]
 Circus aeruginosusWestern marsh-harrier16.4 x[37]
 Circus approximansPacific marsh-harrier18.0 x[37]
 Circus cyaneusNorthern harrier16.4 x[29] [101]
 Circus cyaneusHen harrier16.0 x[37]
 Circus macroarusPallid harrier13.5 x[101]
 Circus pygargusMontagu’s harrier16.0 x[37]
 Circus pygargusMontagu’s harrier16.3 x[101]
 Elanus caeruleus axillanisBlack-shouldered kite6.0 x[101]
 Elanus leucurusWhite-tailed kite (+)5.9 x[29]
 Geranoaetus melanoleucusChilean eagle 42.0x[50]
 Gypaetus barbatusBearded vulture (+) 40.0x[37]
 Gypaetus barbatusBearded vulture 30.0x[50]
 Gypohierax angolensisSea eagle 27.1x[50]
 Gyps africanusWhite-backed vulture 19.7x[50]
 Gyps bengalensisBengal vulture 17.2x[50]
 Gyps coprotheresCape vulture (griffon)11.25 x[101]
 Gyps fulvusEurasian griffon (+) 41.4x[34]
 Gyps fulvusEurasian griffon 37.0x[37]
 Haliaeetus albicillaWhite-tailed sea-eagle27.042.0x[37]
 Haliaeetus albicillaWhite-tailed eagle21.1 x[101]
 Haliaeetus leucocephalusBald eagle10.4 x[29]
 Haliaeetus leucocephalusBald eagle 47.0x[37]
 Haliaeetus leucocephalusBald eagle (+)21.9 m[78] [101]
 Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalusWhite-headed sea eagle 33.1x[50]
 Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanusAlaskan bald eagle 28.7x[50]
 Haliastur sphenarusWhistling kite10.9 x[101]
 Harpia harpyjaHarpy eagle 16.8x[50]
 Harpyopsis novaeguineaeNew Guinea eagle 30.0x[37]
 Hieraaetus fasciatusBonelli’s eagle 20.0x[37]
 Hieraaetus morphnoidesLittle eagle10.3 x[101]
 Ictinia mississippiensisMississippi kite8.0 x[78] [101]
 Kaupifalco monogrammicusLizard buzzard8.6 x[101]
 Lophoictinia isuraSquare-tailed kite (+)17.0 x[2]
 Milvus migransBlack kite23.7 x[101]
 Milvus migransBlack kite23.0 x[37]
 Milvus milvusRed kite 38.0x[37]
 Milvus milvusRed kite26.0 x[84]
 Milvus milvusRed kite25.8 x[101]
 Neophron percnopterusEgyptian vulture 37.0x[37]
 Parabuteo unicinctusHarris’ hawk 25.0f[4]
 Parabuteo unicinctusHarris’ hawk11.0 x[29]
 Parabuteo unicinctusHarris’ hawk10.0 x[29]
 Parabuteo unicinctusHarris’ hawk12.6 f[78] [101]
 Pernis apivorusWestern honey-buzzard29.0 x[37] [101]
 Rostrhamus sociabilisSnail kite17.0 x[6]
 Rostrhamus sociabilisSnail kite7.0 x[78] [101]
CathartidaeCathartes auraTurkey vulture16.8 x[29] [101]
 Coragyps atratusBlack vulture25.5 x[29]
 Gymnogyps californianusCalifornia condor45.0 x[37]
 Gymnogyps californianusCalifornia condor 36.5x[50]
 Sarcorhamphus papaKing vulture 40.0x[46]
 Sarcorhamphus papaKing vulture 23.3x[50]
FalconidaeFalco berigoraBrown falcon10.5 x[101]
 Falco berigoraBrown falcon 16.0x[37]
 Falco columbariusMerlin7.8 x[29] [101]
 Falco columbariusMerlin12.5 x[101]
 Falco columbariusMerlin8.0 x[106]
 Falco eleonoraeEleonora’s falcon6.0 x[101]
 Falco mexicanusPrairie falcon9.1 m[29]
 Falco mexicanusPrairie falcon10.6 f[78] [101]
 Falco naumanniLesser kestrel6.2 x[101]
 Falco peregrinusPeregrine falcon12.3 x[29] [101]
 Falco peregrinusPeregrine falcon16.3 x[101]
 Falco rupicoloidesWhite-eyed kestrel6.5 x[101]
 Falco sparveriusAmerican kestrel11.6 f[29] [101]
 Falco subbuteo longipennisLittle falcon10.5 x[101]
 Falco subbuteo subbuteoEuropean hobby10.8 x[101]
 Falco tinnunculusCommon kestrel16.2 x[101]
 Falco tinnunculusCommon kestrel16.0 x[37]
 Falco vespertinus vespertinusRed-footed falcon12.3 x[101]
 Polyborus cheriwayCheriway caracara 25.8x[50]
 Polyborus plancusCrested caracara8.9 x[78]
 Polyborus tharusBrazilian caracara 37.6x[50]
PandionidaePandion haliaetusOsprey21.9 x[29]
 Pandion haliaetusOsprey25.0 x[37] [101]
 Pandion haliaetusOsprey23.0 x[78]
 Pandion haliaetusOsprey24.8 x[101]
SagittariidaeSagittarius serpentariusSecretary bird 18.6x[5] [50]
Galliformes
CracidaeCrax globulosaWattled curassow (+) 20.0x[37]
 Crax rubraGreat curassow 24.0x[37]
 Mitu tuberosaRazor-billed curassow 23.0x[37]
 Ortalis vetulaPlain chachalaca0.2 m[29]
MegapodiidaeMacrocephalon maleo  23.0x[37]
OdontophoridaeCallipepla gambeliiGambel’s quail7.4 m[29]
 Callipepla californicaCalifornia quail6.9 x[29]
 Colinus virginianusCommon bobwhite6.4 m[29]
PhasianidaeAlectoris rufaRed-legged partridge 6.25x[50]
 Bonasa umbellusRuffed grouse7.6 x[29]
 Bonasa umbellusRuffed grouse8.5 f[78]
 Dendragapus canadensisSpruce grouse13.0 f[10]
 Dendragapus canadensisSpruce grouse13.0 m[10]
 Dendragapus canadensisSpruce grouse5.3 f[29]
 Dendragapus obscurusBlue grouse10.9 m[29]
 Dendragapus obscurusBlue grouse (+)14.0 m[147]
 Dendragapus obscurusBlue grouse (+)11.0 f[147]
 Gallus gallusRed junglefowl 30.0x[98]
 Lagopus leucurusWhite-tailed ptarmigan15.0 m[13]
 Lagopus leucurusWhite-tailed ptarmigan12.0 f[13]
 Meleagris gallopavoWild turkey12.5 x[29]
 Meleagris gallopavoWild turkey 12.3x[50]
 Meleagris gallopavoWild turkey13.0 f[145]
 Pavo cristatusPeafowl 23.2x[50]
 Perdix perdixGray partridge5.17 x[27]
 Perdix perdixGray partridge (+) 5.0x[50]
 Phasianus colchicusCommon pheasant 27.0x[50]
 Tetrao urogallusWestern capercaillie 18.0x[37]
 Tympanuchus cupidoGreater prairie chicken1.5 x[119]
 Tympanuchus pallidicinctusLesser prairie chicken13.5 x[29]
 Tympanuchus phasianellusSharp-tailed grouse6.3 m[29]
Gaviiformes
GaviidaeGavia arcticaBlack-throated diver28.0 x[37]
 Gavia immerCommon loon7.8 x[29]
 Gavia immerGreat northern diver(+)20.0 x[37]
 Gavia stellataRed-throated diver23.0 x[37]
Gruiformes
GruidaeGrus americanaWhooping crane30.0 x[8] [85]
[97]
 Grus americanaWhooping crane7.3 x[78]
 Grus americanaWhooping crane 40.0x[100]
 Grus antigoneSarus crane 26.0x[50]
 Grus canadensisSandhill crane18.3 x[29]
 Grus canadensisSandhill crane19.4 x[78]
 Grus canadensisSandhill crane21.5 x[134]
 Grus grus lilfordiLord Lilford’s crane 39.4x[50]
 Grus japonensisManchurian crane 25.2x[50]
 Grus leucauchenWhite-necked crane 25.8x[50]
 Grus leucogeranusAsiatic white crane 36.2m[50]
 Grus leucogeranusAsiatic white crane 32.3f[50]
 Grus monachusHooded crane 24.0x[50]
 Grus rubicunda  33.0x[50]
OtididaeOtis tardaGreat bustard 28.3x[50]
RallidaeFulica americanaAmerican coot19.5 x[29]
 Fulica americanaAmerican coot22.3 f[78]
 Gallinula chloropusCommon gallinule10.5 x[29]
 Gallirallus australusWeka 13.8x[50]
 Gallirallus brachypterusNew Zealand weka rail 12.3x[50]
 Laterallus jamicensisBlack rail2.4 m[47]
 Rallus longirostrisClapper rail7.5 m[29]
Musophagiformes
MusophagidaeTuracus leucotis donaldsoniDonaldson Smith’s touraco 12.4x[50] [77]
Passeriformes
AegithalidaePsaltiparus minimusBushtit (+)8.4 m[77]
AlaudidaeEremophila alpestrisHorned lark7.1 m[30]
 Eremophila alpestrisHorned lark7.9 x[78]
 Eremophila alpestrisHorned lark8.0 x[78]
BombycillidaeBombycilla cedrorumCedar waxwing7.0 x[77]
 Bombycilla garrulusBohemian waxwing5.8 x[77]
CerthiidaeCerthia familiarisBrown creeper (+)4.6 x[77]
CinclidaeCinclus mexicanusAmerican dipper (+)5.1 m[77]
CorcoracidaeCorcorax melanorhamphosWhite-winged chough 16.3x[50]
 Struthidea cinereaApostlebird 25.0x[50]
CorvidaeAphelocoma coerulescensScrub jay15.8 x[30]
 Aphelocoma ultramarinaMexican jay19.0 m[16]
 Aphelocoma ultramarinaGray-breasted (Mexican) jay10.8 x[30]
 Aphelocoma ultramarinaGray-breasted jay17.6 x[78]
 Corvus brachyrhynchosAmerican crow14.6 x[30]
 Corvus brachyrhynchosAmerican crow13.8 x[90]
 Corvus caurinusNorthwestern crow12.8 x[30]
 Corvus coraxCommon raven13.3 x[30]
 Corvus coraxRaven 24.7x[50]
 Corvus cornixHooded crow 16.8x[50]
 Corvus coroneCarrion crow 13.0f[50]
 Corvus coroneCarrion crow 11.0m[50]
 Corvus coronoidesAustralian crow or raven 21.8x[50]
 Corvus cryptoleucusChihuahuan (white-necked) raven12.5 x[30]
 Corvus frugilegusRook 14.0f[50]
 Corvus ossifragusFish crow14.5 x[30]
 Cyanocitta cristataBlue jay18.3 x[30]
 Cyanocitta cristataBlue jay16.3 x[78]
 Cyanocitta stelleriSteller’s jay11.0 m[30]
 Cyanocitta stelleriSteller’s jay16.1 x[78]
 Cyanocorax caeruleusAzure jay (+) 36.0x[31]
 Cyanocorax yncasGreen jay10.7 x[30]
 Garrulus glandaviusJay 17.0x[50] [112]
 Gymnorhinus cyanocephalusPinyon jay8.8 f[30]
 Gymnorhinus cyanocephalusPinyon jay11.0 x[78]
 Nucifraga columbianaClark’s nutcracker17.4 x[30]
 Perisoreus canadensisGray jay19.2 x[30]
 Perisoreus canadensisGray jay16.0 f[131]
 Perisoreus canadensisGray jay (+)14.0 m[131]
 Pica nuttalliYellow-billed magpie9.9 f[30]
 Pica nuttalliYellow-billed magpie (+)10.0 x[117]
 Pica picaBlack-billed magpie5.0 x[30]
 Pica picaBlack-billed magpie5.9 x[78]
 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocoraxCornish chough 20.3x[50]
CotingidaeRupicola rupicolaCock-of-the-rock 7.0x[50]
DrepanididaeHemignathus virensCommon amakihi7.7 x[78]
 Himatione sanguineaApapane6.4 x[79]
 Telespyza cantansLaysan finch (+)6.0 m[79]
 Telespyza ultimaNihoa finch (+)11.0 x[79]
EmberizidaeAimophila aestivalisBachman’s sparrow3.0 x[57]
 Aimophila quinquestriataFive-striped sparrow4.0 x[96]
 Aimophila ruficepsRufous-crowned sparrow (+)3.2 x[79]
 Ammodramus caudacutusSharp-tailed sparrow10.0 m[54]
 Ammodramus caudacutusSharp-tailed sparrow6.0 f[54]
 Ammodramus maritimusSeaside sparrow8.9 x[78]
 Ammodramus maritimusSeaside sparrow9.0 m[114] [133]
 Ammodramus maritimusSeaside sparrow9.0 f[114] [133]
 Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens(Dusky) seaside sparrow8.3 m[79]
 Ammodramus savannarumGrasshopper sparrow (+)3.1 x[79]
 Amphispiza bilineataBlack-throated sparrow (+)6.0 f[79]
 Calamospiza melanocorysLark bunting (+)4.0 m[79]
 Calcarius lapponicusLapland longspur (+)5.0 x[79]
 Calcarius pictusSmith’s longspur5.0 m[14]
 Calcarius pictusSmith’s longspur (+)4.0 f[14]
 Cardinalis cardinalisNorthern cardinal15.8 f[79]
 Cardinalis sinuatusPyrrhuloxia (+)5.8 m[79]
 Chondestes grammacusLark sparrow (+)7.8 x[79]
 Cyanerpes caeruleusPurple sugar bird 17.0x[50]
 Guiraca caeruleaBlue grosbeak5.9 m[79]
 Junco hyemalis ssp.Dark-eyed (slate-colored) junco10.8 m[79]
 Junco hyemalis ssp.Dark-eyed (gray-headed) junco (+)10.7 x[79]
 Junco hyemalis ssp.Dark-eyed (Oregon) junco (+)9.8 x[79]
 Junco hyemalis ssp.Dark-eyed (white-winged) junco (+)6.6 x[79]
 Junco phaeonotus ssp.Yellow-eyed (Mexican) junco (+)6.6 x[79]
 Melospiza georgianaSwamp sparrow (+)4.8 x[79]
 Melospiza lincolniiLincoln’s sparrow7.6 x[79]
 Melospiza melodiaSong sparrow (+)11.3 x[79]
 Passerculus sandwichensisSavannah sparrow (+)6.1 x[79]
 Passerella iliacaFox sparrow (+)9.7 x[79]
 Passerina amoenaLazuli bunting8.9 x[78]
 Passerina amoenaLazuli bunting4.9 m[79]
 Passerina cirisPainted bunting (+)10.5 f[79]
 Passerina cyaneaIndigo bunting11.0 m[87] [110]
 Passerina cyaneaIndigo bunting11.0 f[87] [110]
 Pheucticus ludovicianusRose-breasted grosbeak7.3 x[78]
 Pheucticus melanocephalusBlack-headed grosbeak 25.0x[143]
 Pheucticus melanocephalusBlack-headed grosbeak9.1 m[79]
 Pipilo abertiAbert’s towhee8.6 x[79]
 Pipilo chlorurusGreen-tailed towhee (+)7.7 X[79]
 Pipilo erythrophthalmusRufous-sided towhee (+)12.3 m[79]
 Pipilo erythrophthalmus ssp.Rufous-sided (spotted) towhee (+)10.7 m[79]
 Pipilo fuscusBrown towhee (+)12.8 m[79]
 Piranga ludovicianaWestern tanager (+)7.9 m[79]
 Piranga oliviceaScarlet tanager (+)10.1 m[79]
 Piranga rubraSummer tanager7.3 x[78]
 Piranga rubraSummer tanager (+)6.0 m[79]
 Plectrophenax hyperboreusMckay’s bunting4.8 f[79]
 Plectrophenax nivalisSnow bunting8.8 x[79]
 Pooecetes gramineusVesper sparrow7.9 x[78]
 Pooecetes gramineusVesper sparrow (+)6.9 x[79]
 Spiza americanaDickcissel4.0 m[79]
 Spizella arboreaAmerican tree sparrow10.1 x[79]
 Spizella breweriBrewer’s sparrow5.2 x[79]
 Spizella pallidaClay-colored sparrow5.1 x[79]
 Spizella passerinaChipping sparrow9.8 x[79]
 Spizella pusillaField sparrow8.8 x[78]
 Spizella pusillaField sparrow (+)7.8 x[79]
 Sporophila torqueolaWhite-collared seedeater11.7 f[79]
 Zonotrichia albicollisWhite-throated sparrow9.7 x[79]
 Zonotrichia atricapillaGolden-crowned sparrow (+)10.5 x[79]
 Zonotrichia leucophrys ssp.(Gambel’s) white-crowned sparrow13.3 x[79]
 Zonotrichia querulaHarris’ sparrow11.7 x[79]
FringillidaeCarduelis flammeaCommon redpoll (+)5.8 m[79]
 Carduelis hornemanniHoary redpoll4.6 x[78]
 Carduelis pinusPine siskin9.4 x[79]
 Carduelis psaltriaLesser goldfinch5.7 f[79]
 Carduelis tristisAmerican goldfinch11.0 x[94]
 Carduelis tristisAmerican goldfinch9.3 x[78]
 Carpodacus cassiniiCassin’s finch (+)7.0 m[79]
 Carpodacus mexicanusHouse finch1.1 x[78]
 Carpodacus mexicanusHouse finch11.6 m[79]
 Carpodacus purpureusPurple finch (+)11.8 m[79]
 Coccothraustes vespertinusEvening grosbeak15.3 m[79]
 Fringilla coelebsChaffinch 29.0 [99]
 Leucosticte arctoa atrata(Black) rosy finch5.7 x[79]
 Leucosticte arctoa ssp.(Gray-crowned) rosy finch(+)6.6 f[79]
 Loxia curvirostraRed crossbill4.2 x[79]
 Loxia leucopteraWhite-winged crossbill 4.0x[2]
 Pinicola enucleatorPine grosbeak9.7 m[79]
 Serinus canariusHouse canary 24.0x[82]
 Serinus canarius domesticusHouse canary 22.0m[50]
HirundinidaeHirundo fulvaCave swallow4.8 x[78]
 Hirundo fulvaCave swallow9.3 x[142]
 Hirundo pyrrhonotaCliff swallow11.0 x[15]
 Hirundo pyrrhonotaCliff swallow9.0 m[30]
 Hirundo pyrrhonotaCliff swallow10.0 x[78]
 Hirundo rusticaBarn swallow8.1 f[30]
 Progne subisPurple martin13.8 x[30]
 Riparia ripariaBank swallow8.0 f[30]
 Stelgidopteryx ruficollisRough-winged swallow5.9 x[30]
 Tachycineta bicolorTree swallow11.0 f[30]
 Tachycineta bicolorTree swallow8.9 x[20] [66]
[68]
 Tachycineta thalassinaViolet-green swallow6.8 m[30]
IcteridaeAgelaius phoeniceusRed-winged blackbird15.8 m[79]
 Dolichonyx oryzivorusBobolink9.0 x[11]
 Dolichonyx oryzivorusBobolink8.1 x[78]
 Euphagus carolinusRusty blackbird8.8 x[32]
 Euphagus cyanocephalusBrewer’s blackbird (+)11.0 m[79]
 Icterus cucullatusHooded oriole6.0 m[79]
 Icterus galbula ssp.Northern (Baltimore) oriole11.6 f[79]
 Icterus galbula ssp.Northern (bullock’s) oriole6.6 m[79]
 Icterus parisorumScott’s oriole (+)6.4 m[79]
 Icterus pectoralisSpot-breasted oriole (+)11.6 x[79]
 Icterus spuriusOrchard oriole9.3 x[78]
 Icterus spuriusOrchard oriole9.6 x[79]
 Molothrus aeneusBronzed cowbird3.6 m[79]
 Molothrus aterBrown-headed cowbird16.9 x[78]
 Molothrus aterBrown-headed cowbird15.8 m[79]
 Quiscalus majorBoat-tailed grackle (+)11.9 x[79]
 Quiscalus mexicanusGreat-tailed grackle12.5 m[79]
 Quiscalus quisculaCommon grackle20.9 m[79]
 Sturnella magnaEastern meadowlark9.0 x[86]
 Sturnella neglectaWestern meadowlark 10.0m[86]
 Sturnella neglectaWestern meadowlark 9.0f[86]
 Xanthocephalus xanthocephalusYellow-headed blackbird 16.0m[1]
 Xanthocephalus xanthocephalusYellow-headed blackbird10.9 m[79]
IrenidaeIrena turcosaTurquoise fairy bluebird (+) 16.1x[50]
LaniidaeLanius excubitorNorthern shrike (+)3.3 x[77]
 Lanius ludovicianusLoggerhead shrike6.1 x[78]
 Lanius ludovicianusLoggerhead shrike (+)12.5 x[77]
MimidaeDumetella carolinensisGray catbird10.9 x[77]
 Mimus polyglottosNorthern mockingbird20.0 x[61]
 Toxostoma bendireiBendire’s thrasher4.2 x[77]
 Toxostoma curvirostreCurve-billed thrasher10.8 x[77]
 Toxostoma dorsaleCrissal thrasher4.4 x[77]
 Toxostoma leconteiLeconte’s thrasher5.7 m[77]
 Toxostoma longirostreLong-billed thrasher7.3 x[77]
 Toxostoma redivivumCalifornia thrasher6.9 x[77]
 Toxostoma rufumBrown thrasher (+)12.8 x[77]
MotacillidaeAnthus rubescensAmerican pipit5.1 x[77]
 Anthus spinolettaWater pipit (+)5.1 f[77]
MuscicapidaeMuscicapa striataSpotted flycatcher 11.8x[50]
NectariniidaeNectarinia asiaticaPurple sunbird 22.0m[50]
OriolidaeOrioles xanthornusBlack-hooded oriole (hang-nest) 15.5x[50]
 Sphecotheres viridisGreen figbird (hang-nest) 18.0f[50]
ParadisaeidaeParadisea apodaBird of paradise 12.1x[50]
ParidaeParus atricapillusBlack-capped chickadee12.4 x[30] [128]
 Parus bicolor ssp.Tufted (eastern) titmouse13.3 x[30]
 Parus bicolor ssp.Tufted (western) titmouse4.8 x[30]
 Parus carolinensisCarolina chickadee10.9 x[30]
 Parus cinctusSiberian tit7.0 x[139]
 Parus gambeliMoutain chickadee10.1 m[30]
 Parus hudsonicusBoreal chickadee4.7 x[78]
 Parus inornatusPlain titmouse8.0 x[30]
 Parus majorGreat titmouse 9.0x[50]
 Parus rufescensChestnut-backed chickadee7.8 x[30]
 Parus sclateriMexican chickadee5.0 x[44]
 Parus wollweberiBridled titmouse6.6 x[30]
ParulidaeCardellina rubrifronsRed-faced warbler (+)3.0 m/f[92]
 Dendroica caerulescensBlack-throated blue warbler9.7 x[78]
 Dendroica caerulescensBlack-throated blue warbler (+)8.0 f[77]
 Dendroica castaneaBay-breasted warbler3.4 x[78]
 Dendroica coronata sp.Yellow-rumped (Audubon’s) warbler6.6 x[77]
 Dendroica coronata sp.Yellow-rumped (myrtle) warbler6.9 x[77]
 Dendroica discolorPrairie warbler (+)10.3 m[77]
 Dendroica dominicaYellow-throated warbler5.1 x[78]
 Dendroica fuscaBlackburnian warbler8.2 m[78]
 Dendroica kirtlandiiKirtland’s warbler9.0 m[93]
 Dendroica kirtlandiiKirtland’s warbler8.0 f[93]
 Dendroica magnoliaMagnolia warbler6.9 x[111]
 Dendroica palmarum hypochryseaYellow palm warbler (+)5.8 x[77]
 Dendroica palmarum palmarumWestern palm warbler (+)6.6 x[77]
 Dendroica pensylvanicaChestnut-sided warbler6.9 x[77]
 Dendroica petechiaYellow warbler (+)8.9 m[77]
 Dendroica pinusPine warbler (+)6.8 x[77]
 Dendroica striataBlackpoll warbler4.3 x[78]
 Dendroica striataBlackpoll warbler3.4 f[77]
 Dendroica tigrinaCape May warbler (+)4.3 f[77]
 Dendroica townsendiTownsend’s warbler3.6 x[78]
 Dendroica virensBlack-throated green warbler5.9 m[77]
 Geothlypis trichasCommon yellowthroat (+)9.9 f[77]
 Helmitheros vermivorusWorm-eating warbler (+)7.1 x[77]
 Icteria virensYellow-breasted chat (+)8.9 x[77]
 Limnothlypis swainsoniiSwainson’s warbler7.8 x[77]
 Mniotilta variaBlack and white warbler11.3 f[77]
 Myioborus pictusPainted redstart6.6 x[78]
 Myioborus pictusPainted redstart4.3 m[77]
 Oporonis tolmieiMacgillivray’s warbler4.1 x[78]
 Oporornis agilisConnecticut warbler4.3 x[77]
 Oporornis formosusKentucky warbler (+)6.0 m[77]
 Oporornis philadelphiaMourning warbler (+)7.9 m[77]
 Oporornis tolmieiMacgillivray’s warbler4.1 m[78]
 Parula americanaNorthern parula (+)4.9 f[77]
 Protonotaria citreaProthonotary warbler4.9 m[77]
 Seiurus aurocapillusOvenbird9.0 x[77]
 Seiurus motacillaLouisiana waterthrush8.0 x[53]
 Seiurus novaeboracensisNorthern waterthrush8.9 x[78]
 Setophaga ruticillaAmerican redstart10.0 m[77]
 Vermivora celataOrange-crowned warbler (+)6.8 m[77]
 Vermivora chrysopteraGolden-winged warbler (+)7.9 m[77]
 Vermivora leucobronchialisBrewster’s warbler (+)6.0 m[77]
 Vermivora luciaeLucy’s warbler5.8 x[78]
 Vermivora peregrinaTennessee warbler (+)6.4 f[77]
 Vermivora pinusBlue-winged warbler7.9 x[77]
 Vermivora ruficapillaNashville warbler7.3 f[77]
 Vermivora virginiaeVirginia’s warbler4.1 x[78]
 Vermivora virginiaeVirginia’s warbler3.2 x[77]
 Wilsonia canadensisCanada warbler8.0 x[78]
 Wilsonia canadensisCanada warbler7.9 f[77]
 Wilsonia citrinaHooded warbler8.0 x[77]
 Wilsonia pusillaWilson’s warbler (+)6.8 m[77]
PasseridaePasser domesticusHouse sparrow13.3 x[79]
 Passer italiaeItalian sparrow 20.0x[98]
 Passer montanusEurasian tree sparrow4.0 x[79]
 Bubalornis albirostrisAfrican ox birds 20.0x[50]
PolioptilidaeAuriparis flavicepsVerdin (+)5.6 x[77]
 Polioptila caeruleaBlue-gray gnatcatcher (+)4.2 x[77]
PrunellidaePrunella modularis occidentalusHedge sparrow 8.3x[50]
PycnonotidaePycnonotus jocususRed-whiskered bulbul4.0 x[77]
RegulidaeRegulus calendulaRuby-crowned kinglet (+)5.6 x[77]
 Regulus satrapaGolden-crowned kinglet (+)5.3 m[77]
SittidaeSitta canadensisRed-breasted nuthatch7.5 m[77]
 Sitta carolinensisWhite-breasted nuthatch9.8 x[77]
 Sitta pusillaBrown-headed nuthatch (+)5.8 x[77]
 Sitta pygmaeaPygmy nuthatch (+)8.2 x[77]
SturnidaeAcridotheres cristatellusCrested myna 13.0x[50]
 Acridotheres cristatellusCrested myna11.2 x[70]
 Lamprotornis caudatusLong-tailed glossy starling 17.8x[50]
 Spreo hildebrandtiHildebrandt’s starling 16.9x[50]
 Spreo hildebrandtiHildebrandt’s starling 16.0f[50]
 Sturnus vulgarisEuropean starling21.3 x[43]
 Sturnus vulgarisEuropean starling (+) 15.8 [50] [98]
SylviidaeAcrocephalus familiarisMillerbird (+)4.2 x[77]
 Acrocephalus stentorous brunnescensIndian great reed warbler 6.6x[50]
 Chamaea fasciataWrentit (+)12.6 x[77]
 Phylloscopus borealisArctic warbler3.1 m[77]
 Sylvia borinGarden warbler 24.0m[50]
 Sylvia communis communisWhitethroat 6.3x[50]
TimaliidaeLeiothrix luteaRed-billed leothrix 15.0x[50]
 Turdoides temicolorBengal jungle babbler 16.5x[50]
TroglodytidaeCampylorhynchus brunneicapillusCactus wren6.3 x[77]
 Thryomanes bewickiiBewick’s wren8.0 x[78]
 Thryomanes bewickiiBewick’s wren (+)7.6 x[77]
 Thryothorus ludovicianusCarolina wren6.1 x[77]
 Troglodytes aedonHouse wren (+)7.1 x[77]
 Troglodytes troglodytesWinter wren (+)4.1 m[77]
TurdidaeCatharus fuscescensVeery10.1 x[39]
 Catharus guttatusHermit thrush (+)8.7 x[77]
 Catharus minimusGray-cheeked thrush (+)7.3 x[77]
 Catharus ustulatusSwainson’s thrush (+)10.1 f[77]
 Hylocichla mustelinaWood thrush (+)8.9 x[77]
 Ixoreus naeviusVaried thrush4.8 x[78]
 Ixoreus naeviusVaried thrush (+)3.6 m[77]
 Sialia currucoidesMountain bluebird4.8 x[77]
 Sialia mexicanusWestern bluebird (+)4.3 m[77]
 Sialia sialisEastern bluebird8.0 x[77]
 Turdus migratoriusAmerican robin (+)13.9 x[77]
 Turdus migratoriusAmerican robin 12.8x[98]
TyrannidaeCamptostoma imberbeNorthern beardless tyrannulet4.8 x[78]
 Contopus borealisOlive-sided flycatcher5.9 x[30]
 Contopus borealisOlive-sided flycatcher7.1 x[78]
 Contopus sordidulusWestern wood pewee6.1 x[30]
 Contopus virensEastern wood pewee7.1 m[30]
 Empidonax difficilisWestern flycatcher6.0 f[30]
 Empidonax flaviventrisYellow-bellied flycatcher3.9 x[30]
 Empidonax fulvifronsBuff-breasted flycatcher (+)2.0 x[12]
 Empidonax minimusLeast flycatcher5.9 x[30]
 Empidonax minimusLeast flycatcher8.0 x[78]
 Empidonax oberholseriDusky flycatcher9.0 f[30]
 Empidonax oberholseriDusky flycatcher8.2 x[78]
 Empidonax oberholseriDusky flycatcher (+)8.0 f[127]
 Empidonax oberholseriDusty flycatcher (+)6.0 x[127]
 Empidonax trailliiWillow (Traill’s) flycatcher7.0 x[30]
 Empidonax virescensAcadian flycatcher10.9 m[30]
 Myiarchus cinerascensAsh-throated flycatcher4.9 x[30]
 Myiarchus cinerascensAsh-throated flycatcher9.0 x[78]
 Myiarchus crinitusGreat-crested flycatcher13.9 x[30]
 Myiarchus tyrannulusBrown-crested (Wied’s) flycatcher8.0 x[30]
 Myiarchus tyrannulusBrown-crested flycatcher9.9 x[78]
 Pyrocephalus rubinusVermilion flycatcher5.5 x[78]
 Sayornis nigricansBlack phoebe3.0 x[30]
 Sayornis nigricansBlack phoebe8.0 x[78]
 Sayornis phoebeEastern phoebe9.1 x[30]
 Tyrannus tyrannusEastern kingbird9.9 x[30]
 Tyrannus verticalisWestern kingbird6.9 x[30]
VireonidaeVireo atricapillusBlack-capped vireo7.0 x[55]
 Vireo belliiBell’s vireo (+)6.9 x[77]
 Vireo flavifronsYellow-throated vireo (+)6.1 x[77]
 Vireo gilvusWarbling vireo (+)13.1 m[77]
 Vireo griseusWhite-eyed vireo (+)7.3 x[77]
 Vireo huttoniHutton’s vireo6.5 f[36] [78]
 Vireo olivaceusRed-eyed vireo (+)10.0 x[77]
 Vireo philadelphicusPhiladelphia vireo8.8 x[77]
 Vireo solitariusSolitary vireo7.4 x[77]
ZosteropidaeZosterops japonicusJapanese white-eye5.1 x[78]
Pelecaniformes
AnhingidaeAnhinga anhingaAmerican anhinga11.9 x[29]
 Anhinga anhingaAmerican anhinga 16.4x[91]
 Anhinga melanogasterDarter (+) 16.0x[37]
FregatidaeFregata arielLesser frigatebird17.0 m[29]
 Fregata arielLesser frigatebird23.5 x[78]
 Fregata magnificensMagnificent frigatebird7.2 f[29]
 Fregata minorGreat frigatebird30.0 f[29]
 Fregata minorGreat frigatebird34.0 x[37]
PelecanidaePelecanus crispusDalmation pelican 35.3x[50]
 Pelecanus erythrorhynchosAmerican white pelican 54.0x[29]
 Pelecanus erythrorhynchosAmerican white pelican16.0 x[37]
 Pelecanus erythrorhynchosAmerican white pelican26.4 x[29]
 Pelecanus occidentalisBrown pelican 31.0x[37]
 Pelecanus onocrotalusWhite pelican 51.0 [50]
 Pelecanus occidentalisBrown pelican19.7 x[29]
PhaethontidaePhaethon aethereusRed-billed tropicbird5.25 x[29]
 Phaethon aethereusRed-billed tropicbird (+)10.0 x[37]
 Phaethon rubricaudaRed-tailed tropicbird16.1 x[29]
 Phaethon rubricaudaRed-tailed tropicbird9.0 x[37]
 Phaethon rubricaudaRed-tailed tropicbird23.8 x[78]
PhalacrocoracidaePhalacrocorax aristotelisShag 14.3x[50]
 Phalacrocorax auritasDouble-breasted cormorant17.8 x[29] [78]
 Phalacrocorax carboGreat cormorant14.3 x[29]
 Phalacrocorax carboGreat cormorant18.0 x[37]
 Phalacrocorax olivaceusOlivaceous cormorant12.6 x[29]
 Phalacrocorax pelagicusPelagic cormorant17.8 x[29]
 Phalacrocorax penicillatusBrandt’s cormorant9.4 x[29]
 Phalacrocorax purpurascensMacquarie shag13.0 x[37]
SulidaeMorus bassanusNorthern gannet20.3 x[29]
 Morus bassanusGannet 12.8x[50]
 Sula (= Morus) bassanusNorthern gannet (+)25.0 x[37]
 Sula (= Morus) bassanusNorthern gannet20.4 x[78]
 Sula dactylatraMasked booby25.3 x[29]
 Sula dactylatraMasked booby (+)23.0 x[37]
 Sula leucogasterBrown booby16.1 f[29]
 Sula leucogasterBrown booby24.6 f[78]
 Sula serratorAustralian gannet (+)33.0 x[37]
 Sula sulaRed-footed booby21.9 x[29]
 Sula sulaRed-footed booby23.0 x[37]
Phoenicopteriformes
PhoenicopteridaePhoenicopterus ruberAmerican flamingo13.2 x[29]
 Phoenicopterus ruberGreater flamingo (+)33.044.0x[37]
Piciformes
PicidaeColaptes auratusNorthern flicker12.5 x[30]
 Colaptes auratus ssp.Northern (yellow-shafted) flicker9.2 m[30]
 Colaptes auratus ssp.Northern (red-shafted) flicker6.7 x[30]
 Colaptes auratus ssp.Northern (gilded) flicker6.3 x[30]
 Colaptes auratus ssp.Common (red-shafted) flicker7.6 x[78]
 Dryocopus pileatusPileated woodpecker9.0 x[19] [67]
 Dryocopus pileatusPileated woodpecker9.9 f[30]
 Dryocopus pileatusPileated woodpecker9.99.4x[78]
 Melanerpes aurifronsGolden-fronted woodpecker5.7 m[30]
 Melanerpes carolinusRed-bellied woodpecker12.1 m[30]
 Melanerpes erythrocephalusRed-headed woodpecker9.9 x[30]
 Melanerpes formicivorusAcorn woodpecker16.0 m[80]
 Melanerpes formicivorusAcorn woodpecker15.0 f[80]
 Melanerpes uropygialisGila woodpecker7.8 m[30]
 Picoides borealisRed-cockaded woodpecker13.8 f[30]
 Picoides borealisRed-cockaded woodpecker (+)12.0 x[69]
 Picoides borealisRed-cockaded woodpecker 13.0f[69]
 Picoides pubescensDowny woodpecker11.4 m[30]
 Picoides scalarisLadder-backed woodpecker4.5 m[30]
 Picoides villosusHairy woodpecker15.8 f[30]
 Sphyrapicus variusYellow-bellied sapsucker6.8 m[30]
Podicipediformes
PodicipedidaeAechmophorus accidentalisWestern grebe6.6 m[78]
 Aechmophorus occidentalisWestern grebe14.0 x[41]
 Podiceps auritusHorned grebe5.2 x[29]
 Podiceps grisegenaRed-necked grebe4.8 x[78]
 Podiceps nigricollisEared grebe5.2 x[29]
 Tachybaptus ruficollisLittle grebe13.0 x[37]
Procellariformes
DiomedeidaeDiomedea albatrusShort-tailed albatross17.3 x[29]
 Diomedea amsterdamensisAmsterdam albatross40.0 x[37]
 Diomedea bulleriBuller’s albatross (+)30.0 x[37]
 Diomedea chlororhynchosYellow-nosed albatross37.0 x[37]
 Diomedea chrysostomaGray-headed albatross (+)30.0 x[37]
 Diomedea epomophoraRoyal albatross58.0 x[37]
 Diomedea exulansWandering albatross40.0 x[37]
 Diomedea immutabilisLaysan albatross53.0 x[37] [45]
 Diomedea immutablisLaysan albatross37.4 x[29]
 Diomedea irrorataWaved albatross40.0 x[37]
 Diomedea melanophrisBlack-browed albatross34.0 x[37]
 Diomedea nigripesBlack-footed albatross27.7 x[29]
 Diomedea nigripesBlack-footed albatross27.0 x[58]
HydrobatidaeHydrobates pelagicusEuropean storm petrel (+)20.0 x[37]
 Oceanodroma furcataFork-tailed storm petrel6.0 x[29]
 Oceanodroma furcataFork-tailed storm petrel (+)9.0 f[78]
 Oceanodroma homochroaAshy storm petrel8.0 x[29]
 Oceanodroma leucorhoaLeach’s storm petrel29.0 m[29]
 Oceanodroma leucorhoaLeach’s storm petrel31.0 x[37]
 Oceanodroma leucorhoaLeach’s storm petrel (+)24.0 m[78]
 Oceanodroma tristramiSooty storm petrel9.8 x[29]
ProcellariidaeBulweria bulweriiBulwer’s petrel22.0 x[29]
 Daption capenseCape petrel20.0 x[37]
 Fulmarus glacialisNorthern fulmar7.3 x[29]
 Fulmarus glacialisNorthern fulmar48.0 x[37]
 Pagodroma niveaSnow petrel20.0 x[37]
 Procellaria parkinsoniBlack petrel17.0 x[37]
 Pterodroma albaPhoenix Island petrel11.3 x[29]
 Pterodroma hypoleucaBonin Island petrel10.7 x[29]
 Pterodroma leucopteraGould’s petrel20.0 x[37]
 Pterodroma macropteraGreat-winged petrel (+)18.0 x[37]
 Pterodroma phaeopygiaDarked-rump petrel7.0 x[29]
 Puffinus auricularisTownsend’s shearwater (+)5.1 x[78]
 Puffinus lherminieriAudobon’s shearwater19.0 x[37]
 Puffinus nativitatisChristmas Island shearwater10.8 x[29]
 Puffinus pacificusWedge-tailed shearwater14.0 x[29]
 Puffinus pacificusWedge-tailed shearwater16.8 x[78]
 Puffinus puffinusManx shearwater4.8 x[37]
 Puffinus puffinusManx shearwater30.0 x[78]
 Puffinus tenuirostrisShort-tailed shearwater30.0 x[37]
 Puffinus gravisGreater shearwater7.1 x[29]
Psittaciformes
CacatuidaeCacatua moluccensisRose-crested cockatoo 25.1x[50]
 Cacatua roseicapillaRoseate cockatoo 26.3x[50]
 Calyptorhynchus banksiiBanksian cockatoo 29.3x[50]
PsittacidaeAmazona auropaleiataGolden-naped parrot 49.0x[50]
 Ara araraunaBlue and yellow macaw 43.0x[50]
 Ara chloropteraRed and yellow macaw (+) 30.0x[50]
 Ara macaoRed and blue macaw 64.0x[50]
 Ara militarisMilitary macaw 30.0x[50]
 Aratinga holochloraMexican conure 22.5x[50]
 Myiopsitta monachaQuaker parakeet 17.8x[50]
 Nandayus nendayParaguayan black-headed conure 18.2x[50]
 Nestor notabilisKea 14.4x[50]
 Poicephalus meyeri transvaalensisBrown parrot 34.2x[50]
 Poicephalus rufiventrisRed-breasted parrot 33.4x[50]
 Psittacus erithacusAfrican grey parrot 73.0x[50]
Sphenisciformes
SpheniscidaeAptenodytes patagonicaKing penguin 26.0x[50]
 Aptenodytes patagonicaKing penguin 23.7x[50]
 Spheniscus magellanicusMagellanic penguin13.0 x[125]
Strigiformes
StrigidaeAegolius acadicusNorthern saw-whet owl7.3 x[26]
 Aegolius acadicusNorthern saw-whet owl7.4 x[30]
 Aegolius acadicusNorthern saw-whet owl7.016.0x[78]
 Aegolius funereusBoreal owl3.4 x[81]
 Aegolius funereusBoreal owl11.0 m[60]
 Asio flammeusShort-eared owl12.9 x[33]
 Asio otusLong-eared owl27.8 x[30] [33]
 Athene cuniculariaBurrowing owl8.7 x[76]
 Bubo virginianusGreat horned owl17.3 x[30]
 Bubo virginianusGreat horned owl20.6 x[78]
 Micrathene whitneyiElf owl4.9 x[78]
 Nyctea scandiacaSnowy owl10.8 f[78]
 Nyctea scandiacaSnowy owl9.428.0x[9] [123]
 Otus asioEastern screech-owl14.2 x[52]
 Otus flammeolusFlammulated owl (+)8.1 x[119]
 Otus kennicottiiWestern screech-owl12.9 x[30]
 Scotiaptex lapponicaLap owl 27.0x[50]
 Strix nebulosaGreat gray owl (+)13.0 f[18]
 Strix nebulosaGreat gray owl9.0 x[105]
 Strix occidentalisSpotted owl (+)17.025.0x[56]
 Strix variaBarred owl10.1 f[30]
 Strix variaBarred owl18.2 x[78]
TytonidaeTyto albaCommon barn-owl15.4 x[30]
 Tyto albaBarn owl 13.0x[50]
Struthioniformes
StruthionidaeStruthio camelusOstrich 50.0x[82]
 Struthio camelus molybdophanesSomali ostrich 26.1x[50]
Tinamiformes
TinamidaeTinamus solitariusSolitary tinamou 15.0x[37]
Trochiliformes
TrochilidaeArchilochus colubrisRuby-throated hummingbird6.3 f[30]
 Archilochus colubrisRuby-throated hummingbird9.0 x[78]
 Calothorax luciferLucifer hummingbird4.0 x[126]
 Calypte annaAnna’s hummingbird6.0 f[30]
 Calypte annaAnna’s hummingbird6.3 x[78]
 Lamprolaima rhamiGarnet-throated hummingbird(+)8.0 m[31]
 Selasphorus platycercusBroad-tailed hummingbird7.1 m[23]
 Selasphorus platycercusBroad-tailed hummingbird12.2 f[22]
 Selasphorus platycercusBroad-tailed hummingbird12.1 f[30]
 Selasphorus platycercusBroad-tailed hummingbird8.0 x[78]
 Selasphorus rufusRufous hummingbird4.1 x[78]
 Selasphorus sasinAllen’s hummingbird3.9 f[30]
 Selasphorus sasinAllen’s hummingbird4.0 x[78]
 Stellula calliopeCalliope hummingbird6.1 f[24]
 Stellula calliopeCalliope hummingbird6.0 x[78]

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