Dissertation

The second migrant: the role of gender in demographic theories, methods, and data for migration research

Abstract

Migration is not a neutral process – gender plays a big role in who moves, when, and why. This dissertation explores how men and women migrate differently, and how these differences are shaped by age, country of origin or destination, time, and life circumstances.
A large literature review shows that women often have the same desire to migrate as men, but are less likely to actually follow through. When women do migrate, they often face extra challenges in the job market, as they are seen not just as migrants, but also as women. Research on this topic is still limited: most studies focus on labor migration from the Global South to the Global North, and many data sets do not break down information by gender.
Another key problem analyzed by this thesis is that common prediction models which are used to forecast migration trends often fail when it comes to women. They work better for male migration but are less accurate for female flows. This happens because the models are based on outdated ideas viewing men as independent movers, women as dependent followers and are trained based on data that comes without a gender breakdown.
Another study in this thesis shows that men and women often migrate at different stages of life, even along the same routes. Women are not just following men’s patterns – they move at different times, which means we cannot assume migration looks the same for both genders.
Using online search data, another study in this thesis explores a use case for such innovative data sources to provide insights into the gender dimension of migration. The study estimates how many Russian citizens left their country during the war in Ukraine. The results suggest over 100,000 people left, with a clear male majority in asylum applications showing how digital traces can help fill in missing data during crises.
Another study looked at professionals using LinkedIn data. Globally, men and women migrate about equally, but in major destination countries like the UK, US, Australia, and South Korea, women make up the majority, especially in healthcare, finance, and real estate. This highlights the important role women are playing in migration for professional reasons.
A final study focused on international students in the UK. Since Brexit and the pandemic, the share of female students has dropped, especially from countries with historical ties to the UK. This shows how policies not designed with gender in mind can still have unintended effects and create barriers for migrant women’s access to UK higher education system.
Taken together, these findings show that gender is a fundamental part of migration and just as important as age, time, or location. Despite growing evidence, gender is still often ignored or oversimplified in migration research. The thesis calls for a shift: using more inclusive data, questioning old assumptions, and building models that reflect the real, diverse, and complex world of migration today. Only then can we truly understand who moves, why, and how we can support fair and informed policies for everyone.