Journal Article
Mapping subnational gender gaps in internet and mobile adoption using social media data
Breen, C. F., Fatehkia, M., Yan, J.,
Zhao, X., Leasure, D. R., Weber, I. G., Kashyap, R.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 122:42, e2416624122 (2025)
Abstract
The digital revolution has ushered in many societal and economic benefits. Yet access to digital technologies such as mobile phones and internet remains highly unequal, especially by gender in the context of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). While national-level estimates are increasingly available for many countries, reliable, quantitative estimates of digital gender inequalities at the subnational level are lacking. These estimates, however, are essential for monitoring gaps within countries and implementing targeted interventions within the global sustainable development goals, which emphasize the need to close inequalities both between and within countries. We develop estimates of internet and mobile adoption by gender and digital gender gaps at the subnational level for 2,075 regions in 117 LMICs from 2015 through 2025, a context where digital penetration is low and national-level gender gaps disfavoring women are large. We construct these estimates by applying machine-learning algorithms to Facebook user counts, geospatial data, development indicators, and population composition data. We calibrate and assess the performance of these algorithms using ground-truth data from subnationally representative household survey data from 33 LMICs. Our results reveal striking disparities in access to mobile and internet technologies between and within LMICs. These disparities imply that as of 2025, women are 19% less likely to use the internet and 8% less likely to own a mobile phone in LMICs, corresponding to over 190 million fewer women owning a mobile phone and over 320 million fewer women using the internet.